Minimum Energy Efficiency Standards for Landlords

If you own rental property in England or Wales, minimum energy efficiency standards are something you simply cannot ignore. These regulations determine whether you can legally let your property and carry significant financial penalties for non-compliance.

Since 1 April 2020, most privately rented domestic properties must achieve an energy performance certificate rating of at least E before they can be let to tenants. Properties rated F or G are effectively unlettable unless landlords register a valid exemption. The UK Government has signalled its intention to tighten these standards further, with plans to require an EPC rating of C by 2030 under its Warm Homes Plan.

This guide covers everything landlords need to know about the MEES regulations: which properties are covered, current legal requirements, proposed changes, funding options, the full range of exemptions available, and what happens if you fall foul of the rules.

Introduction to Minimum Energy Efficiency Standards (MEES)

Minimum energy efficiency standards, commonly known as MEES, set the baseline energy efficiency rating that private rented homes must meet before landlords can grant new tenancies or continue existing ones. The rules exist to improve the energy performance of rental housing stock, reduce carbon emissions, and help tenants manage their energy bills.

The regulations stem from the Energy Act 2011 and were formally introduced through the Energy Efficiency (Private Rented Property) (England and Wales) Regulations 2015. They apply to domestic properties in the private rented sector across England and Wales, covering the vast majority of tenancy types.

Since 1 April 2020, the minimum EPC rating of E applies to both new and existing tenancies. Landlords who let properties rated F or G without a registered exemption face enforcement action and financial penalties from their local authority. Looking ahead, the Government’s plan includes raising the minimum standard to EPC band C by 2030, though final legislation is still being developed through ongoing consultations.

Is Your Property Covered by the MEES Regulations?

Understanding whether your property falls within the scope of MEES is the essential first step toward compliance. The regulations cast a wide net, but certain properties do fall outside the regime.

The minimum energy efficiency standards currently apply to most domestic private rented properties in England and Wales. This includes properties let on an assured shorthold tenancy, a regulated tenancy, an assured tenancy, and a domestic agricultural tenancy. If your rental property falls into any of these tenancy categories, MEES almost certainly applies to you.

For MEES to apply, the property must legally require an energy performance certificate. This means the property has been marketed for sale or rent, or has undergone significant construction works, within the last 10 years. A valid EPC is the gateway document that triggers MEES obligations.

Some properties sit outside the regulations:

• Listed buildings where compliance would unacceptably alter their character or appearance
• Certain temporary buildings with a planned time of use of two years or less
• Stand-alone buildings with a total useful floor area of less than 50 square metres
• Holiday lets and other properties where an EPC is not legally required

Properties with EPC ratings of F or G are caught by MEES and cannot be legally let without either improving the property’s rating to at least E or registering a valid exemption on the PRS Exemptions Register.

Confirming your status: To determine whether MEES applies, landlords should work through three key questions. First, confirm the tenancy type—is it an assured shorthold, assured, regulated, or domestic agricultural tenancy? Second, establish whether the property requires an EPC under current rules—has it been marketed or significantly altered in the past decade? Third, check the property’s EPC rating—if it shows F or G, you either need to make energy efficiency improvements or register an exemption before letting.

Current Minimum EPC Requirements for Landlords (as at 2026)

The path to today’s minimum energy efficiency standards followed a phased timeline, giving landlords time to prepare their properties for compliance.

From 1 April 2018, the first phase of MEES took effect. Landlords in England and Wales could no longer grant new tenancies or renew existing ones on domestic properties rated F or G unless they had registered a valid exemption. This applied to new tenancies only—existing tenants in place before this date were not immediately affected.

From 1 April 2020, the rules expanded to cover existing tenancies as well. This meant that landlords could no longer continue letting properties rated below EPC E, even where tenants had been in occupation for years. The property remains non-compliant regardless of when the tenancy began, and landlords must either upgrade or register an exemption.

Under current rules, landlords must:

• Obtain a valid energy performance certificate before marketing a property for rent
• Ensure the property meets the minimum EPC rating of E (or has a registered exemption)
• Renew the EPC at least every 10 years, or sooner if major energy efficiency improvements are completed
• Provide the EPC to prospective tenants and include rating information in property advertisements

Domestic properties already achieving an EPC C rating or above are largely future-proofed against currently proposed changes. However, landlords should continue monitoring policy updates, as the EPC methodology itself may change with the introduction of new assessment methods.

The requirements described above apply specifically to England and Wales. Scotland and Northern Ireland operate under different regulatory frameworks, which are covered later in this guide.

Planned Changes and Future MEES Targets

The energy efficiency rules are set to become significantly stricter over the coming years. While final legislation is still being developed, the direction of travel is clear: landlords should plan for a minimum standard of EPC C by 2030.

The Government’s Warm Homes Plan sets out an ambition to upgrade private rented homes to EPC band C by 2030 in England and Wales. This policy direction aims to reduce fuel poverty, lower energy bills for tenants, and cut carbon emissions from the residential sector in line with the UK’s net-zero 2050 commitments.

Recent and forthcoming consultations (running from 2024 through 2026) are examining several key changes:

• Raising the minimum energy efficiency rating from E to C
• Updating the EPC methodology to better reflect real-world energy performance
• Increasing civil penalties for non-compliance, potentially up to £30,000 per property
• Introducing new requirements around carbon emissions and heating systems

A significant change on the horizon is the planned introduction of the Home Energy Model (HEM) from 2026 onwards, with compulsory use expected from around 1 October 2029. This new EPC methodology will place greater emphasis on building fabric, heating system efficiency, and carbon performance rather than just estimated energy costs. Properties assessed under HEM may receive different ratings than under the current RdSAP system.

The indicative policy direction suggests that new tenancies may need to meet EPC C (or the HEM equivalent) before existing tenancies, with a backstop date around 1 October 2030 for all private rented homes. However, these dates remain subject to final legislation.

For practical planning purposes, landlords should treat EPC C as the working target for medium-term investment decisions. Properties currently rated D, E, F or G will likely require upgrades before 2030, and starting the improvement process early allows for better planning and access to funding.

Funding Improvements and the MEES Cost Cap

One of the most important aspects of MEES for landlords to understand is the cost cap. While the regulations require landlords to improve their properties, they also limit how much mandatory spending is required.

Under the current regime in England and Wales, landlords are not required to spend more than £3,500 (including VAT) per property on relevant improvements to reach EPC E. This spending cap provides a ceiling on the financial obligation, though many landlords choose to invest more to achieve better ratings and future-proof their properties.

Relevant improvements are those identified on the property’s EPC recommendations report or through other recognised assessments such as a Green Deal Advice Report. These measures must be technically suitable for the property and cost-effective to install.

Improvements funded since 1 October 2017 count towards the £3,500 cap. This means landlords who have already invested in upgrades can factor those costs into their compliance calculations, provided they retain receipts and invoices as evidence.

The three main funding routes available to landlords are:

Funding Route	Description
Third-party funding	Grants, local authority schemes, or energy supplier programmes (such as ECO) that cover part or all of improvement costs
Mixed funding	Combining external grants with landlord contributions up to the cost cap
Self-funding	Landlord pays for improvements directly where no external support is available

Looking ahead to the proposed EPC C standards, consultations have discussed a higher cost cap, often in the range of £10,000. However, specific figures may change before final regulations are published.

Third-Party Funding Options

Before spending your own capital on energy efficiency improvements, explore what external funding might be available. Various schemes exist to help landlords upgrade their properties.

Typical sources of third-party funding include:

• National grant schemes announced by the UK Government
• Local authority or combined authority improvement programmes
• Energy supplier obligations such as the Energy Company Obligation (ECO)
• Low-cost “green” finance products offered by some mortgage lenders

These funding sources commonly cover measures such as:

• Loft and cavity wall insulation
• Low-carbon heating systems including heat pumps
• Upgraded glazing and draught-proofing
• Smart heating controls and efficient boilers

When applying for or receiving party funding, landlords should maintain written evidence of all funding offers, grant decisions, and completed works. This documentation serves two purposes: demonstrating compliance with MEES requirements and supporting any future exemption claims if the property still cannot reach EPC E despite improvements.

Combining Funding and Self-Funding

In many cases, external funding will cover only part of the cost of making energy efficiency improvements. Landlords are expected to top up with their own funding up to the £3,500 MEES cost cap.

Consider this worked example: A landlord receives a £1,500 grant from a local authority scheme towards cavity wall insulation that costs £2,200 in total. The landlord must contribute the remaining £700 from their own funds. This £700 counts towards their £3,500 cap, leaving £2,800 of remaining obligation for any additional measures needed to reach EPC E.

If, after exhausting all available grants and self-funding up to the £3,500 cap, the property still fails to reach EPC E, the landlord may qualify for an “all relevant improvements made” exemption. This exemption acknowledges that the landlord has done everything reasonably required under the current rules.

Maintaining detailed records is essential. Keep all invoices for works completed, grant award letters, and contractor quotations. These documents evidence both spending and attempted improvements, which may prove crucial if a local authority queries your compliance status.

Self-Funding Improvements

Where no third-party funding is available, landlords must use their own funding for energy efficiency improvements. However, the current MEES rules never require spending more than £3,500 including VAT.

Important points about self-funding:

• You do not have to spend the full cap if the property can reach EPC E for less
• If every suitable measure under £3,500 has been installed and the property still rates F or G, you can register an exemption rather than continue spending
• Only relevant improvements as identified on the EPC or recognised assessments count towards the cap

When prioritising where to spend, focus on measures offering the best impact per pound. Insulation (loft, cavity wall, floor), draught-proofing, efficient boilers, and smart heating controls typically deliver strong improvements in the property’s rating relative to their cost. The EPC recommendations report provides estimated costs and rating improvements for each measure, helping landlords make informed decisions.

Selecting and Prioritising Energy Efficiency Measures

Every EPC comes with a recommendations report that serves as a roadmap for improving the property’s rating. Understanding how to use these recommendations helps landlords plan effective, cost-efficient upgrades.

The EPC includes a simple “top actions” list highlighting the most impactful improvements, plus a detailed schedule showing potential measures, estimated costs, and indicative rating improvements. Not every measure will be suitable for every property, but this list forms the starting point for planning.

Low-cost, high-impact measures to prioritise first:

• Loft insulation top-ups (bringing existing insulation to 270mm or more)
• Cavity wall insulation where cavities exist and are suitable
• LED lighting throughout the property
• Hot water cylinder insulation and thermostatic radiator valves
• Draught-proofing around windows, doors, and other openings

Medium-cost measures for greater impact:

• Upgrading an old G-rated boiler to a modern condensing boiler
• Improving single-glazed windows with double or triple glazing
• Floor insulation where underfloor access is straightforward
• Smart heating controls and programmable thermostats

For harder-to-treat properties—those with solid walls, homes off the gas grid, or large Victorian terraces—a more bespoke assessment may be necessary. These properties often require staged works planned over several years to reach EPC C by 2030. Measures like external wall insulation or air source heat pumps carry higher costs and longer payback periods, making early planning essential.

Landlords should avoid the temptation to pursue only the cheapest measures if they will not meaningfully improve the rating. Instead, focus on measures that move the property toward the target band efficiently.

Using EPC Recommendations and Other Surveys

The MEES regulations define relevant energy efficiency improvements largely by reference to recommendations in EPCs and recognised advice reports. Understanding what counts as a “relevant improvement” matters for both compliance and exemption claims.

If your current EPC is close to its 10-year expiry date, predates significant upgrades, or was produced using outdated modelling assumptions, consider commissioning a new EPC. Fresh assessments capture improvements already made and may reflect changes in the assessment methodology that benefit certain property types.

For landlords planning more ambitious upgrades—particularly those targeting EPC C ahead of 2030—a detailed home energy assessment or retrofit assessment can provide a clearer roadmap. These surveys go beyond standard EPC recommendations to consider the interaction between different measures, ventilation requirements, and optimal sequencing of works.

If all recommended improvements costing up to the spending cap have been installed and the property’s rating remains below E, this forms the basis for an “all relevant improvements made” exemption. Documentation from the EPC recommendations and evidence of works completed will support the exemption registration.

MEES Exemptions: When You Can Legally Let Below EPC E

Exemptions exist to acknowledge that not every property can reach EPC E within the cost cap, or that specific circumstances make improvements impractical. However, exemptions are limited, must be registered on the PRS Exemptions Register, and do not remove the obligation to try improving the property first.

All exemptions are time-limited. Most last for 5 years, while the temporary exemption for new landlords lasts 6 months. Once an exemption expires, landlords must reassess the property, make any newly viable improvements, or re-register if still eligible.

Key points about exemptions:

• Exemptions are generally linked to the landlord rather than the property—a new owner must re-register if they wish to rely on the same grounds
• Supporting evidence (surveyor reports, contractor quotes, consent correspondence) must be kept and may need to be provided to local authorities on request
• An exempt property must still have a valid EPC if otherwise required by law
• Advertising a non-compliant property without a registered exemption can trigger enforcement action

The exemption applies only while properly registered. Landlords should not assume an exemption automatically continues; proactive management of exemption expiry dates is essential.

“All Relevant Improvements Made” Exemption

This exemption applies where the landlord has installed every relevant energy efficiency measure that is suitable, cost-effective, and within the £3,500 cap, but the property’s EPC rating remains at F or G.

To register this exemption, landlords should retain:

• Invoices and receipts for all improvement works
• EPCs before and after works were completed
• Technical reports explaining why additional measures are unsuitable (for example, a surveyor’s report confirming the property has no cavity suitable for insulation)

The exemption lasts for 5 years from registration. After expiry, the landlord must reassess the property. New measures may have become available or affordable, technologies may have improved, or costs may have fallen. If the property still cannot reach EPC E within the cap, the landlord can re-register.

During the exemption period, the property can be legally let despite being below EPC E. The exemption effectively acknowledges that the landlord has met their obligations under the current MEES framework.

“High Cost” Exemption

The high cost exemption applies where the cheapest single recommended improvement would itself cost more than the £3,500 cap, making compliance unreasonable under current rules.

To evidence this exemption, landlords should obtain at least two formal quotes from reputable installers confirming that every relevant measure exceeds the cap. These quotes should be dated, detailed, and from established contractors.

Consider this example: A small one-bedroom flat with solid walls has only one meaningful improvement available—external wall insulation costing £12,000. Since this single measure exceeds the £3,500 cap and no other cost-effective measures exist, the landlord can register a high cost exemption.

As with other exemptions, this normally lasts 5 years and requires uploading supporting documentation to the PRS Exemptions Register.

Wall Insulation Exemption

This specific exemption covers cases where the only relevant improvements involve wall insulation, and a suitably qualified expert advises in writing that installation would damage the building’s fabric or structure.

The wall insulation exemption recognises that some properties—particularly older solid-wall buildings—may suffer from installation of certain insulation types. Issues can include:

• Moisture trapping leading to damp and condensation problems
• Structural concerns where walls cannot support additional materials
• Risk of interstitial condensation causing hidden damage

Evidence should come from a chartered surveyor, structural engineer, or other relevant expert with appropriate qualifications. The written opinion should clearly explain why the recommended wall insulation measure would cause damage and should not be installed.

This exemption also typically lasts 5 years and requires uploading the expert report when registering. Landlords must still consider and implement any other non-wall measures that remain suitable and cost-effective—the exemption covers only the problematic wall insulation.

Third-Party Consent Exemption

This exemption applies where relevant improvements require consent from another party—such as a tenant, superior landlord, freeholder, mortgage lender, or planning authority—and that consent is refused or granted only on unreasonable terms.

Common scenarios include:

• A freeholder refusing permission for external wall insulation that would alter the building’s appearance
• A mortgage lender declining consent for works they consider outside standard terms
• A planning authority refusing permission for replacement windows in a conservation area
• A tenant refusing access for improvement works during their tenancy

Documentary evidence is essential. Landlords must show written requests for consent and written refusals or unreasonable conditions. Informal or oral refusals are insufficient for registration and will not protect against enforcement queries.

The duration of this exemption may vary depending on circumstances. It may last until the tenancy ends, for a fixed 5-year term, or until circumstances change. Landlords are expected to revisit improvements if the consent position changes—for example, if a new freeholder takes over or a tenant moves out.

Property Devaluation Exemption

The property devaluation exemption can be used if a qualified independent surveyor determines in writing that installing a specific energy efficiency measure would reduce the property’s market value by more than 5%.

This exemption requires:

• A valuation report from a Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) registered valuer or equivalent professional
• Clear explanation of which measure(s) would cause devaluation and why
• Quantification showing the value reduction would exceed 5%

The exemption lasts 5 years and must be based on a specific valuation report submitted to the PRS Exemptions Register. It applies only to the problematic measure causing devaluation—landlords must still install any other viable measures that would not have this negative impact.

This exemption is relatively rare but may apply in heritage properties where certain improvements would harm character or saleability, or in specialist property types where particular alterations would reduce market appeal.

Temporary Exemption for New Landlords

A 6-month temporary exemption is available in defined scenarios where a person has recently become a landlord and could not reasonably have foreseen or avoided acquiring a sub-standard property.

Qualifying scenarios include:

• Becoming a landlord through inheritance (for example, inheriting a tenanted property from a deceased relative)
• Acquiring a property through certain court orders
• A lease being granted under an agreement entered into before MEES came into force

The 6-month period gives new landlords time to either improve the property to EPC E or register a different long-term exemption. It is not intended as a permanent solution but as breathing space to understand obligations and take appropriate action.

Evidence of the date and nature of becoming a landlord—such as probate documents, court orders, or completion statements—must be retained and uploaded when registering. Once the 6 months expire, the landlord must have either achieved compliance or registered another applicable exemption.

How to Register a MEES Exemption

Exemptions must be registered online on the PRS Exemptions Register for England and Wales. The register is maintained by the government and accessible through the landlord’s account.

Information required when registering typically includes:

• Landlord contact details and identification
• Property address and valid EPC reference number
• Tenancy information including start date and type
• Exemption type being claimed
• Supporting documents and evidence (quotes, survey reports, correspondence)

Once submitted, exemption entries generally cannot be edited. Landlords should carefully check all information for accuracy before confirming the registration. Errors in the original submission may require cancelling and re-registering, potentially creating gaps in coverage.

Landlords can voluntarily cancel an exemption if they later bring the property up to at least EPC E or remove it from the private rented sector. This might occur after completing improvement works or when selling a previously rented property.

Enforcement, Penalties and Landlord Rights

Local authorities are responsible for enforcing MEES and EPC duties within their areas. Understanding the enforcement process helps landlords respond appropriately if queries arise.

Since April 2018 for new tenancies and April 2020 for existing tenancies, letting a sub-standard property (EPC F or G) without a valid exemption can trigger enforcement action. Local authorities can investigate suspected breaches for up to 12 months after the breach occurs.

The enforcement process typically follows these stages:

1. Suspected breach identified: The local authority becomes aware of a potentially non-compliant property through complaints, routine checks, or EPC database analysis
2. Compliance notice issued: The authority requests information about EPCs, tenancy details, and any claimed exemptions
3. Investigation: The landlord’s response is assessed, and evidence is gathered
4. Penalty notice: If a breach is confirmed, a financial penalty notice is issued
5. Review and appeal: Landlords can request internal review and, if unsuccessful, appeal to the First-tier Tribunal

Current financial penalties under the domestic MEES framework in England and Wales can reach up to £5,000 per property. Proposed changes under future reforms may increase this cap to around £30,000, reflecting the Government’s intention to strengthen enforcement.

Local authorities can also publish details of penalties on a public register, typically for at least 12 months. This publication requirement creates reputational consequences beyond the immediate financial penalty.

Landlords have the right to request an internal review of any penalty notice within 28 days. If the penalty is upheld following review, a further right of appeal exists to the First-tier Tribunal (Property Chamber). Professional advice is recommended if you receive a penalty notice.

Typical MEES Non-Compliance Scenarios

Understanding common breach scenarios helps landlords avoid the most frequent compliance failures.

Scenario 1: New tenancy on F-rated property A landlord grants a new assured shorthold tenancy on a property with an EPC rating of F without registering an exemption. This is a clear breach from day one of the tenancy, exposing the landlord to penalties.

Scenario 2: Expired EPC and ignored duties A landlord continues letting a property after the EPC expires, assuming the old rating still applies. Without a valid EPC, the landlord cannot demonstrate compliance, and the property’s actual current rating is unknown.

Scenario 3: Exemption misuse A landlord registers an exemption without proper supporting evidence, or continues relying on an exemption after it has expired. Both scenarios constitute breaches if the property remains below EPC E.

Failure to provide a valid EPC can also affect other legal processes. In England, landlords cannot serve a valid Section 21 notice (no-fault eviction notice) unless they have provided the tenant with a copy of a valid EPC. This creates practical problems beyond MEES penalties alone.

When receiving correspondence from a local authority about MEES compliance, landlords should respond promptly and thoroughly. Ignoring a compliance notice or providing incomplete information typically escalates the situation toward formal penalties.

Energy Efficiency Rules Across the UK Nations

Energy efficiency regulation is partly devolved across the UK, meaning rules differ between England and Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. Landlords with properties in multiple nations must understand each jurisdiction’s requirements.

The MEES framework described throughout this guide applies specifically to domestic private rented properties in England and Wales. These two nations share a common regulatory system, with the same minimum standards, exemption types, and cost caps.

Scotland operates its own EPC framework with distinct requirements. Current plans include introducing minimum energy efficiency standards for the private rented sector by around 2028. Scotland also has a long-term aim to phase out polluting heating systems before 2045, emphasising transition to heat pumps and district heating. Some smaller buildings are exempt from EPCs in Scotland, including stand-alone non-residential buildings under 50 square metres and temporary buildings in use for less than two years.

Northern Ireland operates a completely separate EPC and energy efficiency regime with its own guidance and enforcement arrangements. Landlords with properties in Northern Ireland should consult local regulations rather than relying on England and Wales-specific MEES rules. The requirements, exemptions, and penalties may differ substantially.

For landlords managing portfolios across multiple nations, jurisdiction-specific advice is essential. A property that complies in England may not meet Scottish standards, and vice versa. Keeping separate compliance records for each nation helps ensure nothing falls through the gaps.

Practical Steps for Landlords to Prepare for Stricter Standards

With EPC C standards expected by 2030, landlords who start preparing now will be better positioned than those who wait for final legislation.

Immediate actions:

• Check the current EPC rating for every property in your portfolio
• Commission new EPCs where certificates are old, missing, or predate significant improvements
• Identify properties rated D, E, F or G as priorities for upgrade planning

Medium-term planning:

• Develop a multi-year upgrade programme targeting EPC C by 2030
• Start with the poorest-performing properties and those with highest void rates
• Phase works to spread costs and take advantage of emerging funding opportunities
• Consider combining upgrades with routine void periods or major maintenance cycles

Financial planning:

• Review mortgage terms to understand any consent requirements for improvement works
• Explore “green” mortgage products that offer preferential rates for energy-efficient properties
• Consider remortgaging to release equity for funding improvements where appropriate
• Budget for higher future cost caps (potentially £10,000 under new EPC rules)

Record keeping:

• Maintain a central digital file or spreadsheet tracking EPCs, works completed, invoices, grants received, and any exemptions across your portfolio
• Set reminders for EPC expiry dates and exemption renewal deadlines
• Keep copies of all contractor quotes, even for works not undertaken

Better-performing rental properties offer real advantages beyond regulatory compliance. More energy efficient homes attract stronger tenant demand, particularly from tenants concerned about lower energy bills. Properties with good ratings may experience fewer rent arrears linked to high utility costs. As standards tighten across the sector, properties meeting or exceeding requirements will maintain their value better than those lagging behind.

Key Takeaways

• Minimum energy efficiency standards require most privately rented homes in England and Wales to achieve at least EPC E
• The current £3,500 cost cap limits mandatory spending on improvements, but landlords can claim exemptions if they cannot reach EPC E within this limit
• Multiple exemption types exist (all improvements made, high cost, wall insulation, third-party consent, devaluation, temporary) but all require registration and evidence
• Local authority enforcement can result in penalties up to £5,000 currently, potentially rising to £30,000 under proposed changes
• EPC C standards are expected by 2030, making early preparation essential for landlords with D, E, F or G rated properties
• Scotland and Northern Ireland have different rules, requiring jurisdiction-specific compliance approaches

What to Do Next

The path to compliance with current and future energy efficiency standards starts with understanding your portfolio’s current position. Begin by gathering current EPCs for every property you own and identifying which need attention. For properties rated F or G, prioritise either making relevant improvements or registering appropriate exemptions immediately.

For properties rated D or E, start planning upgrade works now. The transition to EPC C standards will require significant investment across the private rented sector, and early movers will benefit from better access to contractors, funding, and time to phase works efficiently.

Review your EPC recommendations reports, explore available funding, and develop a realistic timeline for bringing your properties up to standard. The costs of proactive compliance are invariably lower than the penalties, void periods, and rushed remediation that come from leaving things too late.